Uses Of Starter Motors And Their History Engineering Essay

Uses Of Starter Motors And Their History Engineering Essay Motor Starters are switches specially designed for starting motors. These switches are designed to control the flow of current. There are basically two types of motor starters, Manual Starters and Magnetic Starters. Uses of STARTER In a Motor : 1: To give starting resistance to motor. 2:Starter is used to safe the motor winding from the high starting current. 3: Starter is used in a motor to control the limit of high starting current.As the motor starts(in case of DC motor) high current occurs which is controlled by use of high resistance slowly cut out of the circuit. History Both Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal-combustion engines require the pistons which is used to convert pressure into motion. Originally, a hand crank(handle) was used to start engines, but it was difficult, and dangerous to start an engine. Even though cranks had an overrun mechanism, when the engine started, the crank could begin to spin along with the crankshaft and it might strike the person starting the engine. Care has to be taken to prevent the spark from backfiring. In short we can say that there is a lot of risk while starting the engine with a a crank.Moreover, increasingly larger engines with higher compression ratios made hand cranking a more physically demanding endeavour. While there was a need of starter, as in 1899, Clyde J. Coleman applied for U.S. Patent 745,157 for an electric automobile self-starter inventing one that worked successfully in most conditions did not occur until 1911 when Charles F. Kettering of Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (DELCO) invented and filed for U.S. Patent 1,150,523 for the first useful electric starter. (Kettering had replaced the hand crank on NCRs cash registers with an electric motor five years earlier.) One aspect of the invention lay in the realization that a relatively small motor, driven with higher voltage and current than would be feasible for continuous operation, could deliver enough power to crank the engine for starting. At the voltage and current levels required, such a motor would burn out in a few minutes of continuous operation, but not during the few seconds needed to start the engine. The starters were first installed by Cadillac on production models in 1912. The Model T relied on hand cran ks until 1919; by 1920 most manufacturers included self-starters.The electric starter ensured that anyone could easily start and run an internal combustion engine car, and this made it the design of choice for car buyers from that day forward. Details about the Starters used-> Following starters used to operate motor starter Electric starter Gear reduction starter Pneumatic starter The Principal at which motor starter is worked Electric starter used in motor starter Electric starter Main Housing Overrunning clutch Armature Field coils Brushes Solenoid What is motor starter? A starter motor is a high-torque electric motor for turning the gear on the engine flywheel. The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, it pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. Before the advent of key-driven starters, most electric starters were actuated by foot-pressing a pedestal located on the floor, generally above the accelerator pedal. Solenoid The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starters pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above; unless modifications are made. Also, a standard starter motor is only designed for intermittent use which would preclude its use as a generator. Overrunning clutch This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early 1960s; before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter drive pinion on a helically-cut driveshaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh with the ring gear. An intermediate development between the Bendix drive developed in the 1930s and the overrunning-clutch designs introduced in the 1960s was the Bendix Folo-Thru drive. The standard Bendix drive would disengage from the ring gear as soon as the engine fired, even if it did not continue to run. The Folo-Thru drive contains a latching mechanism and a set of flyweights in the body of the drive unit. When the starter motor begins turning and the drive unit is forced forward on the helical shaft by inertia, it is latched into the engaged position. Only once the drive unit is spun at a speed higher than that attained by the starter motor itself (i.e., it is backdriven by the running engine) will the flyweights pull radially outward, releasing the latch and permitting the overdriven drive unit to be spun out of engagement. In this manner, unwanted starter disengagement is avoided before a successful engine start. Starter used in motor starter : Gear-reduction starters Chrysler Corporation contributed materially to the modern development of the starter motor. In 1962, Chrysler introduced a starter incorporating a geartrain between the motor and the driveshaft. Rolls Royce had introduced a conceptually similar starter in 1946, but Chryslers was the first volume-production unit. The motor shaft has integrally-cut gear teeth forming a drive gear which mesh with a larger adjacent driven gear to provide a gear reduction ratio of 3.75:1. This permits the use of a higher-speed, lower-current, lighter and more compact motor assembly while increasing cranking torque. Variants of this starter design were used on most vehicles produced by Chrysler Corporation from 1962 through 1987. The Chrysler starter made a unique, readily identifiable sound when cranking the engine. This starter formed the design basis for the offset gear reduction starters now employed by about half the vehicles on the road, and the conceptual basis for virtually all of them. Many Japanese automakers phased in gear reduction starters in the 1970s and 1980s. Light aircraft engines also made extensive use of this kind of starter, because its light weight offered an advantage. Those starters not employing offset geartrains like the Chrysler unit generally employ planetary epicyclic geartrains instead. Direct-drive starters are almost entirely obsolete owing to their larger size, heavier weight and higher current requirements. Ford also issued a nonstandard starter, a direct-drive movable pole shoe design that provided cost reduction rather than electrical or mechanical benefits. This type of starter eliminated the solenoid, replacing it with a movable pole shoe and a separate starter relay. The Ford starter operated as follows: The operator closed the key-operated starting switch. A small electric current flowed through the starter relay coil, closing the contacts and sending a large current to the starter motor assembly. One of the pole shoes, hinged at the front, linked to the starter drive, and spring-loaded away from its normal operating position, swung into position. This moved a pinion gear to engage the flywheel ring gear, and simultaneously closed a pair of heavy-duty contacts supplying current to the starter motor winding. The starter motor cranked the engine until it started. An overrunning clutch in the pinion gear uncoupled the gear from the ring gear. The operator released the key-operated starting switch, cutting power to the starter motor assembly. A spring retracted the pole shoe, and with it, the pinion gear. FEATURES / BENEFITS à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It is Compact . à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It has high torque. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It has high durability. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It has self-contained clutch shaft. Electric starter The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, it pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. Before the advent of key-driven starters, most electric starters were actuated by foot-pressing a pedestal located on the floor, generally above the accelerator pedal. The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starters pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above; unless modifications are made. Also, a standard starter motor is only designed for intermittent use which would preclude its use as a generator. This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early 1960s; before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter drive pinion on a helically-cut driveshaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh with the ring gear. An intermediate development between the Bendix drive developed in the 1930s and the overrunning-clutch designs introduced in the 1960s was the Bendix Folo-Thru drive. The standard Bendix drive would disengage from the ring gear as soon as the engine fired, even if it did not continue to run. The Folo-Thru drive contains a latching mechanism and a set of flyweights in the body of the drive unit. When the starter motor begins turning and the drive unit is forced forward on the helical shaft by inertia, it is latched into the engaged position. Only once the drive unit is spun at a speed higher than that attained by the starter motor itself (i.e., it is backdriven by the running engine) will the flyweights pull radially outward, releasing the latch and permitting the overdriven drive unit to be spun out of engagement. In this manner, unwanted starter disengagement is avoided before a successful engine start. The modern starter motor is a series-wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When low-current power from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid (the thin, grey wire in the image above), usually through a key-operated switch, it pushes out a small pinion gear on the starter motors shaft and meshes it with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. The solenoid also closes high-current contacts (powered through the thick red cable in the image) for the starter motor and it starts to run. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. Modern starter motors have a bendix   a gear and integral freewheel, or overrunning clutch, that enables the flywheel to automatically disengage the pinion gear from the flywheel when the engine starts. Chrysler and Ford both contributed to the starter market, with two types that were very different to those used on vehicles today. Chrysler manufactured a gear reduction starter employing a small gear to drive a larger gear attached to the starters pinion gear shaft. This allowed lower current to be drawn from the battery to run the starter, and still had the initial torque needed to turn the flywheel approximately at 200 rpm. This starter is also smaller and integrates the starter solenoid in the starter case, instead of having it mounted externally. Since this design weighs less, it has also been adapted to some light aircraft engines, where minimizing weight is very important. Fords version was slightly more complicated. The engineers at Ford Motor Company used a positive engagement style starter. This type of starter eliminated the solenoid, replacing it with a moveable armature and a separate starter relay. An armature is a part made of ferromagnetic metal that is magnetized by a coil of copper ribbon wound around it, creating an electromagnet. The Ford starter operated as follows: The operator closed the key-operated starting switch. A small electric current flowed through the starter relay coil, closing the contacts and sending a large current to the starter motor assembly. The armature moved a pinion gear to engage the flywheel ring gear, and simultaneously closed a pair of heavy-duty contacts supplying current to the starter motor winding. The starter motor cranked the engine until it started. An overrunning clutch in the pinion gear uncoupled the gear from the ring gear. The operator released the key-operated starting switch, cutting power to the starter motor assembly. A spring retracted the armature, and with it, the pinion gear. Current Ford starter designs incorporate the starter solenoid into the starter motor assembly, instead of mounting it on the firewall or on a fender. Starter motor A starter is an electric motor needed to turn over the engine to start it. A starter consists of the very powerful DC electric motor and starter solenoid that is attached to the motor (see the picture). A starter motor requires very high current to crank the engine, thats why its connected to the battery with large cables (see lower diagram). The negative (ground) cable connects -battery terminal to the engine block close to the starter. The positive cable connects +battery terminal to the starter solenoid. The starter solenoid works as an electric switch when actuated, it closes the circuit and connects the starter motor to the battery. At the same time, it pushes the starter gear forward to mesh with the engines flywheel. How the starting system works: When you turn the ignition key to the Startposition, the battery voltage goes through the starter control circuit and activates the starter solenoid, which in turn energizes the starter motor. The starter motor cranks the engine. A starter can only be operated when the automatic transmission shifter is in Parkor Neutralposition or if the car has a manual transmission, when the clutch pedal is depressed. To accomplish this, there is a Neutral safety switchinstalled at the automatic transmission, (or at the clutch pedal). When the automatic transmission is not in Parkor Neutral(or when the clutch pedal is not depressed), the neutral safety switch is open and the starter relay disconnects the starter control circuit. Simplified diagram of typical starting system Pneumatic Starter A Pneaumatic motor is a machine which converts in the form of compressed air into mechanical work. It converts it either in linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can come from piston actuator,while rotary motion is supplied by a piston air motor. These motors are very successful in hand-held tool industry. Classification Linear In order to achieve linear motion from compressed air, a system of pistons is most commonly used.   The compressed air is pumped into an air tight chamber that houses the shaft of the piston.   Also inside this chamber a spring is coiled around the shaft of the piston in order to hold the chamber completely open when air is not being pumped into the chamber.   As air is pumped into the chamber the force on the piston shaft begins to overcome the force being exerted on the spring. As more air is pumped into the chamber, the pressure increases and the piston begins to move down the chamber. When it reaches its maximum length the air pressure is released from the chamber and the spring completes the cycle by closing off the chamber to return to its original position.   Piston motors are the most commonly used in hydraulic systems. Essentially, piston motors are the same as hydraulic pumps except they are used to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.    Piston motors are often used in series of two, three, four, five, or six cylinders that are enclosed in a housing.   This allows for more power to be delivered by the pistons because several motors are in sync with each other at certain times of their cycle Rotary Another type of pneumatic motor, known as a rotary vane motor, uses air to produce rotational motion to a shaft.   The rotating element is a slotted rotor which is mounted on a drive shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with a freely sliding rectangular vane.[3] The vanes are extended to the housing walls using springs, cam action, or air pressure, depending on the motor design. Air is pumped through the motor input which pushes on the vanes creating the rotational motion of the central shaft. Rotation speeds can vary between 100 and 25,000 rpm depending on several factors which including the amount of air pressure at the motor inlet and the diameter of the housing.[1] Rotary motion vane type air motors are used to start large industrial diesel or natural gas engines.   Stored energy in the form of compressed air, nitrogen or natural gas enters the sealed motor chamber and exerts pressure against the vanes of a rotor.   Much like a windmill, this causes the rotor to turn at high speed.   Because the engine flywheel requires a great deal of torque to start the engine, reduction gears are used. Reduction gears to create high torque levels with the lower amounts of energy input. These reduction gears allow for sufficient torque to be generated by the engine flywheel while it is engaged by the pinion gear of the air motor or air starter. Application A widespread application of small pneumatic motors is in hand-held tools, power ratchet wrenches, drills, sanders, grinders, cutters, and so on. Though overall energy efficiency of pneumatics tools is low and they require access to a compressed-air source, there are several advantages over electric tools. They offer greater power density (a smaller pneumatic motor can provide the same amount of power as a larger electric motor), do not require an axillary speed controller (adding to its compactness), generate less heat, and can be used in more volatile atmospheres as they do not require electric power.Some gas turbine engines and Diesel engines, particularly on trucks, use a pneumatic self-starter. The system consists of a geared turbine, an air compressor and a pressure tank. Compressed air released from the tank is used to spin the turbine, and through a set of reduction gears, engages the ring gear on the flywheel, much like an electric starter. The engine, once running, powers th e compressor to recharge the tank. On larger diesel generators found in large shore installations and especially on ships, a pneumatic starting gear is used. The air motor is normally powered by compressed air at pressures of 10-30 bar. The air motor is made up of a center drum about the size of a soup can with four or more slots cut into it to allow for the vanes to be placed radially on the drum to form chambers around the drum. The drum is offset inside a round casing so that the inlet air for starting is admitted at the area where the drum and vanes form a small chamber compared to the others. The compressed air can only expand by rotating the drum which allows the small chamber to become larger and puts another one of the cambers in the air inlet. The air motor spins much too fast to be used directly on the flywheel of the engine, instead a large gearing reduction such as a planetary gear is used to lower the output speed. A Bendix gear is used to engage the flywheel. Some smaller diesel engines such as ones found on tugboats and lifeboats use hydraulic start motors in which the air motor is replaced with a hydraulic motor. While running, the engine shouldnt be shut down unless the hydraulic accumulators for the starting motor are recharged. Otherwise there is a manual hand pump to slowly pump up the accumulators. Since large trucks typically use air brakes, the system does double duty, supplying compressed air to the brake system. Pneumatic starters have the advantages of delivering high torque, mechanical simplicity and reliability. They eliminate the need for oversized, heavy storage batteries in prime mover electrical systems. BIBLOGRAPHY WWW.GOOGLE.COM WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM WWW.PHYSICS.ORG

The Effect of Second Wave

The consequence of 2nd moving ridge In order to cognize the consequence of 2nd moving ridge on the life’s of that clip we need to cognize what their life’s consisted of. It started with the construct of civilisation in 2000bc. Equally shortly as world discovered that they can turn their ain nutrient, and they don’t have to alter topographic points in hunt of resources. They figured out the natural resources needed to make agribusiness. Hence they started with the agricultural society. Where ab initio everyone was husbandman, but so easy alteration in their professions started. Peoples who had faith in God, claimed that they can speak to god and that the God wanted them to interpret his bid to common people, therefore they became priests. As the farms flourished in one country and in other due to natural catastrophe agribusiness failed. Hence others started occupying the well worse countries. In order to protect their resources, some physically fit people were appointed as soldiers. And some of them , who somehow lost their lands, started making uneven occupations of the society. Therefore, in this manner, profession got segregated by dramatis personae. As the society grew, the powerful became more powerful and weaker became more suppressed and increased in figure. Hierarchy in people got function in society edifice. This changed the architecture of the society bit by bit but drastically. Plan of Temple composites started germinating from one threshold to figure of thresholds. One for lower dramatis personae n upper dramatis personae, one for male monarch and common people, and one for priests n male monarchs. And the profession of all the groups of people was determined by what people used to believe of them. In this manner, those who were responsible for planing edifice and infinites became responsible for insistent signifiers throughout the timeline. In this manner, other working topographic points, common assemblage infinites, populating infinites got their signifiers due t o this civilization. This society system continued to be in laterality boulder clay a technological revolution, the industrial revolution began in Britain and within a few decennaries spread to Western Europe and the United States. The period of clip covered by the industrial revolution is approximately between 1760 and 1830. This revolution marked the passage traveling from manus production methods to machines, new chemical and Fe production processes, improved efficiency of H2O power, the addition usage of steam power and the development of machine tools. Majorly all the little graduated table manual production Stationss were converted into big industries with machines working with steam power and assembly line system doing the production procedure much more efficient and faster. Important technological development occurred in fabric industry, Fe industry, steam engines, machine tools, chemicals, cement production, paper machine, glass devising, agribusiness, mining etc. We will discourse developments which affected the architecture of the clip straight. In Fe devising industry, the major alteration was replacing of wood and other bio fuels with coal. Abraham Darby made great work stoppages utilizing coke to fuel his blast furnaces at coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke hog Fe he made was used largely for the production on dramatis personae Fe goods. He made the production cheaper n faster but coke hog Fe was barely used for bring forthing saloon Fe. But his boy Abraham Darby 2 built Equus caballus hay and kettle furnaces. Since dramatis personae Fe was going cheaper and more plentiful, it began being a structural stuff following the edifice of the invention Fe span in 1778. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, patented a chemical procedure for doing Portland cement which was an of import promotion in the edifice engineering. A new method of bring forthing glass was developed in Europe during the early 19Thursdaycentury. In 1832, this engineering was used to do big sizes of glass sheets. With inexpensive and faster production of Fe, the big build infinites like industries became larger in size, now the roof spans could be big and lighter and of class much faster to build. Large undertakings like Bridgess were made possible. With the easier production of cement one can switch to much more strong building stuff, this stuff was one measure in front of calcium hydroxide and brick masonry. With the development of big glass sheets the gaps of edifices changed. Spaces like places, close fold infinites, needed Windowss for sunshine and natural position and at the same clip taking attention of air current and rain. Technological promotions which came into drama at the clip of 2nd industrial revolution like roads, Bridgess, canals, railroads affected the architecture of that clip drastically. Ships were constructed of Fe, which made the travel faster and more people could go. In present society of agricultural civilization, distances between people was big hence there was no e xchange of cognition and civilization. But every bit shortly as this revolution happened, due to promotions like ship edifice, roads and railroad paths distances were made smaller and knowledge exchange became much easier. In this manner, the engineerings like metallurgy, cement, glass, beforehand agribusiness techniques found their manner in agricultural society’s worldwide. With the approaching industries people who were of the lower dramatis personae and given less importance found their manner to these industries which provided shelter, nutrient and employment to all of them. This made an instability in agricultural society and hence clash developed between both the thought. But in some manner, this 2nd moving ridge affected the society adversely, as the increase of employment ; figure of labors came deluging over in hunt of employment. Due to this big figure of people the degree of life style of these people took the set back. They were already from lower category, big in figure ; fewer resources to utilize made the lives of these people miserable. In hostile working conditions, populating infinites became heavy. These rose a large inquiry on the wellness of these people, people used to populate so close to each other that diseases used to distribute like fire. All this affected the architecture but non in a thoughtful manner, big shaded countries were made to shelter their labors. Community lavatories, bathrooms followed them. Due to this altering life style and altering economic system, bit by bit, a in-between category emerge in industrial metropoliss, largely towards the terminal of the nineteenth century. Until so, there had been merely two major categories in society: wealthy and privilege 1s, and low-income common mans born in the working categories. However new urban industries bit by bit required more of what we call today â€Å"white collar† occupations, such as concern people, tradesmans, bank clerks, insurance agents, merchandisers, comptrollers, directors, physicians, attorneies, and instructors. In-between category were those who prided themselves on taking duty for themselves and their households. They viewed professional success as the consequence of a person’s energy, doggedness, and difficult work. And due to this category, lodging architecture took a new bend. Affluent 1s had Villas and large person houses, whereas working people used to populate in bunchs, 100s of people us ed to populate together. This new set of people couldn’t afford single Villas but were non willing to populate in hostile conditions, where working category used to populate. Hence apartment’s construct got its individuality, where single floors were owned by single household. These lead to-hygienic and comfy infinites to populate. In these undermentioned ways the 2nd moving ridge showed its feeling on the architecture of that clip: India was strictly a hub of different agricultural societies with different believes, different rites, different infinites but same hierarchy. But in 19Thursdaycentury, when Britons arrived and started trade in India, so the First World War happened. India was flooded with industrial revolution based civilization. This civilization was of fast production, assembly line, big industries with tonss of Equus caballus power in the signifier of new coal engines. Transportation, roads, railroads were introduced in India. This brought the new thoughts of edifice in India, which in bend once more affected agricultural society. After independency, the 3rd moving ridge besides found its manner to India and surprisingly spreaded in India quicker than in other parts of universe. And hence, the present India makes a really apathetic combination of agricultural, industrial, information based society.

Araling Panlipunan

Central Bank is the bank of a country a nation. Its main function is to issue currency known as ‘Bank Notes'. This bank acts as the leader of the banking system and money market of the country by regulating money and credit. These banks are the bankers to the government, they are bankers' banks and the ultimate custodian of a nations foreign exchange reserves. The aim of the Central Bank is not to earn profit, but to maintain price stability and to strive for economic development with all-round growth of the country There is now hardly any country which does not have a Central Bank of its own.It acts as a great engine of growth of a State. In India, the RBI was established in 1935 and this Bank has since been functioning as the Central Bank of the country (this is not to be confused with ‘Central Bank of India', which is only a commercial bank). The Central Bank of different countries is known by different names like Reserve Bank in India, Bank of England in U. K. , Feder al Reserve System in U. S. A. , etc. (ii) Commercial Banks: A bank, which undertakes all kinds of ordinary banking business, is called a commercial bank. It is so called because it provides money and credit for commercial and trade activities.They receive short and medium term deposits from the public and grant short-term loans, and advances. They supply working capital to industries and enable them to carry on production and manufacturing activities. They grant loans and advances on the stocks of agricultural commodities, industrial goods, etc. They discount internal and foreign bills and thereby finance the International trade. They also perform certain agency services such as collection of cheques, dividends, interest on investments, issue of drafts, letter of credit, Travelers' Cheques, Investment Advisory Services, etc.(iii) Industrial Banks or Financial Institutions: An Industrial Bank is one which specialises by providing loans and fixed capital to industrial concerns by subs cribing to share and debenture issued by public companies. They play an important role in the establishment and growth of industries. The block capital required for the acquisition of fixed assets, etc. , is supplied by investment banks. They provide long-term loans and credits for periods varying between 5 and 15 years for industries to acquire fixed assets.They may serve as catalytic agents in mobilisation of capital in other forms of assistance such as, underwriting, guarantee, etc. These banks are nowadays grouped as ‘Development Financial Institutions'. These banks are very popular in Germany and Japan. In India, we have several Industrial Finance Corporations in addition to the â€Å"Industrial Development Bank of India†. Both, Development Financial Institutions and Commercial banks, nowadays, finance infrastructural development activities, which include construction of transport facilities, building of power-supply stations, etc.(iv) Exchange Banks (Authorized De alers in Foreign Exchange): These types of banks are primarily engaged in transactions involving foreign exchange. They deal in foreign bills of exchange import and export of bullion and otherwise participate in the financing of foreign trade. They do a number of incidental services such as opening of letters of credit, issue of Foreign Currency Drafts and Travellers' Cheques and supply of information about foreign customers. They provide credit and loans in foreign currency and also accept deposits in Foreign Currency.They require huge capital and trained staff as it is a risky business. They maintain branches in foreign countries at important trade centres. In the past foreign banks operating in India would deal in foreign exchange and were known as exchange banks. Nowadays, many Indian banks deal in foreign exchange with special authorisation from Reserve33ank of India and known as Authorised Dealers in Foreign Exchange. As per Foreign Exchange Regulation Act banks dealing in For eign Exchange related activities require the permission of Reserve Bank of India.This is applicable to both Indian and Foreign Banks. (v) Co-operative Banks: They are organized on co-operative principles of mutual help and assistance. They grant short-term loans to the agriculturists for purchase of seeds, harvesting and for other cultivation expenses. They accept money on deposit from and make (vi) Land-mortgage Banks (Presently known as Agriculture and Rural Development Banks): They are agriculture development banks. The Land-mortgage banks supply long-term loans for a period up to 15 years for development of land to improve agricultural yields.They grant loan for permanent improvements in agricultural lands. They create negotiable bonds out of real estate like land, buildings, etc. They raise funds by floating debentures and by borrowing from the government. The Agriculture Finance Corporation was the first Indian Institution to set up finance for development of Agriculture. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was constituted by the Government to promote rural development. (vii) Indigenous Banks:The Central Banking Enquiry Commission defined an indigenous banker as an individual or firm accepting deposits and dealing in indigenous lending of money to the needy. They form unorganised part of the banking structure, i. e. , these are unrecognised operators in receiving deposits and lending money. In India the Marwaris, the Multanis, the Jains, the Sowcars, the Nattukottai chettiars are some of the leading indigenous bankers who charge high rates of interest on their lendings. In rural areas, they still provide substantial finance to agriculturists and small traders.(viii) Savings Banks: These are institutions which collect the periodical savings of the general public. Their main object is to promote thrift and saving habits among the middle and lower income sections of the society. They have certain restrictions on number of withdr awals in a year to discourage spending. In almost all countries, postal authorities also run savings bank accounts and their working is regulated by the government. The first savings bank was started in Hamburg in 1765. In India, we have postal savings accounts. These days separate savings banks as such are very rare.In India, all commercial banks have savings accounts. The minimum balance which is required to be kept in the accounts differs from banks to banks. The rate of interest payable on the accounts by banks is determined by RBI. Presently it is 4. 5 per cent per annum. Co-operative banks are normally allowed to pay an additional 0. 5 per cent interest per annum. Interest rate on savings accounts with post offices is determined by Government of India. (ix) Supranational Banks: Special Banks have been created to deal with certain international financial matters.World Bank is otherwise known as International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) which gives long-term l oans to developing countries for their economic and agricultural development. Asian Development Bank (ADB) is another Supranational Bank which provides finance for the economic development of poor Asian countries. They generally provide finance at concessional interest rates and for long-term needs. These institutions are the creations of World bodies promoted by various countries or central banks of different countries.The European Central Bank established in June 1998 by countries in the European Union is another example of Supranational Bank. (x) International Banks: International Banks are those which are operating in different countries. While, the registered office/head office is situated in one country, they operate through their branches in other countries. They specialize in Banking business pertaining to foreign trade like opening of letters of credit, providing short-term finance in foreign currency, issue of performance guarantee, arranging foreign currency credits, etc. They are the main traders in International Currencies like US ‘dollars', Japanese ‘Yen', the new-born European Currency ‘Euro', etc. They also perform Currency Risk Management functions for clients. These banks are also known as Multinational Banks since, they operate from many countries. These banks make possible the flow of money/credit from one country to from the above, it can be understood that the classification of banks cannot be rigid. We find that banks are providing finance in more than one field that is why, it is rightly said that they are â€Å"Departmental stores of Finance†.

Discussion of Margaret Atwoods Rape Fantasies Essay

Discussion of Margaret Atwoods Rape Fantasies The author of the short story Rape Fantasies is Margaret Atwood - She is a renowned Canadian writer of poetry and fiction, she is best known for her novel The Handmaids Tail. The short story that I chose Rape Fantasies comes from Atwood?s first collection of short stories called Dancing girls and Other Stories. ?Remember no one can make you feel inferior without your consent? Eleanor Roosevelt The story Rape Fantasies is about a bunch of females who are sitting around the lunch room during their lunch hour talking about fantasies that they consider to be called ?Rape Fantasies?. The story came about because society has made rape a big†¦show more content†¦We begin with Greta, a blonde with an attitude. She wants all of her peers to admire her. She believes that she is one of the best people at their job. Her fantasy begins in a place where most rape assaults happen, in the victim?s home. Out of reality and back to fantasy she sees a man dressed as a burglar climb onto her balcony on the 18th floor, coming into her apartment and stealing her body. Like most rape cases she did use force of resistance so she allowed him to finish the act of trying to overpower someone. This gives me the assumption that rape to her takes place in a comfortable environment. Were you?re helpless and feel that there is no importance to resisting. The thing that sticks out about rape to her is how the person gets to you. In the story she gave more details about that than the rape its self. In this case her rapist was swinging from balcony to balcony raping the females in her building. Then you have the other overly confident blonde. Her name is Chrissy. Through the story you will find that most people go by the facts of places were rape occurs because just like Greta, Chrissie?s rape fantasy takes place in her home. Chrissy starts of in a particular room in the house , a room that you would think a person would have to really be looking for you to rape in order to go their , the bathroom. In her fantasy she sees herself getting raped in the